Business driven information technoligy Term Paper

Business driven information technoligy - Term Paper Example By taking into consideration of these policies, IBM effectively secures its information assets in quite an ethical manner. The company delivers two types of services one is ‘Managed Security Services (MSS)’ and the other one is â€Å"Cloud Security Services (CSS)’. Through MSS, IBM offers ‘single management console’ by which IT department team frequently monitors its overall information infrastructure. With the help of CSS, the company provides an advanced technological platform called ‘IBM Virtual-Security Operations Centre’ by which it delivers high value services to its customers which does not require low cost security devices and maintenance (IBM, 2012). Apart from these two services, IBM also offers application & data security services, identify and access management services and IT & network infrastructure security services. With the help of these services, the company has been ethically capable to secure its information assets. S ince the initiation, IBM has followed certain business conduct guidelines in quite an ethical way by which it has been able to maintain confidentiality among its service software, application and information assets. The company ensures that every level of personnel should comply with IBM directives, polices and mentioned guidelines. For instance, employee who expertise in specific areas such as procurement, tax, imports and export must also obey certain kinds of guidelines. IBM has extensive precious assets which comprise huge proprietary information such as the company’s intellectual property, confidential information assets, system software and physical property. The company’s wide variety of services helps to strengthen its abilities in order to ethically manage, digitize and secure its valuable assets (IBM, 2012). Recommendations for Additional Types of Ethical Practices and Security By taking into concern regarding IBM’s business code of conduct, it has bee n observed that the company secures its information assets in quite an ethical manner. However, it is necessary for the company to understand employees’ issues and satisfaction levels regarding business policies and working environment. IBM should assess whether or not the employees are comfortable with the specified laws and policies. IBM’s top level must understand and analyze every employee’s issues, behaviors and attitudes towards the workplace and should justify them in quite an ethical manner. Contextually, the security issue for IBM can be strengthened further with the frequent changes in passwords by the employees related to intellectual assets of the company such as project related blueprints among others. Upgradation of security software to track malpractices such as hacking of confidential organizational data can be ensured through use of firewall and augmentation of network security. Chapter 5 Steps taken by Popular Technology Manufacturers to Reduce E-Waste ‘Electronic Waste’ or ‘E-Waste’ is one of the rapidly developing problems all over the world. E-waste primarily consists of a huge amount of various components such as toxic materials and hazardous materials among others which create undesirable impact upon human health and environment if it is not dealt with adequately. The United Nations, non-governmental organizations and private IT sector companies have agreed to take serious

The Business Organization Of McDonalds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Business Organization Of McDonalds - Essay Example The gradual transition that saw the move from the previous industrial age an into the information age has been seen to bring management and leadership changes within various organizations. It has been argued that the machine view of organizations is essentially a closed system and is not able to satisfactorily accommodate the required in the rapidly changing information age environment. It is imperative that all organizations ensure that they progressively become more flexible in nature so as to remain competitive in addition to being able to adequately respond to the growing number of various economic pressures, the extremely rapid pace of change, the expanding globalization, as well as the seemingly increasing influx of both technology and information. The constant need for organizations to be flexible has been seen to precipitate organizational structures that are seen to be inherently leaner, flatter as well as more cooperative. As opposed to mechanistic organizations where chang e is invariably seen to be mostly controlled at the task or action level, the metaphor of viewing organizations as the human brain is seen to involve a process of double-loop learning. A double-loop learning system is seen to look at the various variable that is seen to govern actions, this essentially means attempting to understand the deeper assumptions that happen to normally be taken-for-granted underneath the usual operational norms. People are encouraged to attempt and critically examine their own behavior.... This innovative move on the part of McDonald’s is seen as being responsible for helping the company maintain both its franchisee and manager loyalty despite the harsh and often highly competitive market (Mceachern, 2006). It was during the 1960s that the company went on to develop the face of Ronald McDonald as the company brand’s main face. The company also released the Big Mac Burger during the sixties and the big Mac Burger went on to quickly becoming McDonald’s most popular burger product. It was during the 1970s that the McDonald’s corporation started giving back to the society via its Ronald McDonald House Charity (Shenron, 2009). In an aggressive growth strategy, McDonald’s spread its branches to Japan by 1971 and then on to both China and Russia in 1990. The company also worked on expanding to areas outside the United States and by the year 1995, it was estimated that more than half of all the company’s restaurants were actually locat ed in areas that were outside the United States. By the year, 2000, McDonald’s had grown to serving an estimated over 50 million individuals worldwide on a daily basis (Duiker and Spielvogel, 2013). McDonald’s Corporation is currently perceived as being the worlds’ largest store chain composed of hamburger fast food restaurants. According to McDonald’s website the company is the global leading fastfood service retailer and has an estimated over 34,000 local restaurant outlets in about 119 different countries globally.These restaurants help the company serve over 69 million people each day (aboutMcDonalds’s, 2013). The company employs a franchisees and suppliers business system that are attributed to the success of the McDonald’s

Financial Statement Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Financial Statement Analysis - Essay Example The Task III is an overall performance report with particular reference to effects of performances on market prices of each of the companies. Wal- Mart Stores Inc is largest organization in the corporate sector in the world. At present it is also the largest retailer, generating three times revenue of number two retailer France’s Carrefour SA. Wal- Mart originated in 1962 when its founder Samuel Walton and his brother J.L.(Bud) Walton opened their store in the city of Rogers in Arkansas. Its stocks began over the counter trading in 1970 and were listed with New York Stock Exchange in 1972. In US itself Wal- Mart has around 1500 discount stores, 1471 Super centers, 538 Sam’s club, and 64 neibourhood markets. Its business has now spread to 13 countries including Argentina, Brazil, China, Canada, Germany, Mexico, UK, and others. In all there are around 7800 stores in 14 markets, and they are serving more than 176 millions of customers in a year. The objective of Wal- Mart is to serve the customers at large with far reaching range of goods at cheaper prices. In words of Sam1 â€Å"if you think about it from the point of view of customers you want everything: a wide assortment of quality merchandize; the lowest possible prices; guaranteed satisfaction; friendly knowledgeable service; and a pleasant shopping experience. You love it when a store exceeds your expectations, and you hate it when a store inconveniences you, gives you a hard time, or pretends you are invisible.† These were the thinking of founders of Wal- Mart; and that’s the reason that Wal- Mart was bound to reach at a level of success where it stands today. Wal- mart is relentlessly indulging in social responsibility activities and that shows the commitment and responsibilities of Wal- Mart towards the society at large. Its environmental goals are to be supplied by 100% renewable energy; to create zero wastage through activities of its

How has internet helped students?

How has internet helped students? Introduction Internet is one of the most important inventions in the past twenty years. The appearance of the internet made our lives become much more colorful and also made us feel much closer with each other. It is easily to make a video call with our relatives and friends who are thousands of miles away within only a few seconds. Today, internet has penetrated into every corner in every industry; in this article I will mainly focus on how has the internet helped students in education. It can be said that the application of the internet in education is already very extensive, such as online distance education, Internet resources for education and so on. In this article I will talk about the following aspects First part is online courses in this part I will both talk about online learning and online tutoring; Secondly, I am going to describe how students use internet as a research tool to find information; Students use it as a delivery tool; Students use internet as a communication medium with teachers or other students; Finally I am going to give a new plan which brings to internet education. Online courses Online learning, Online tutoring Definition Learning by distance has been available for over 100 years but it has increased dramatically with the appearance of the Internet. (Phillips, B. (2003), pp, 3)So the online courses were invented. 40 years ago Open University offered the first online courses. During the last 40 years online courses has been improved greatly. At present time online courses are very popular all over the world. Online courses should been separated into two parts, one is online learning another is online tutoring. As contribution to Wikipedia have suggested, online learning is a term which is commonly used. Most frequently it seems to be used for distance education, with no face-to-face interaction. Online tutoring refers to the process of tutoring within an online virtual environment or networked environment where teachers and learners are separated by time and space (Bates, A. W. (1997) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-line_tutoring) Goals and benefits of online courses Reducing environmental impact People who take part in the online courses dont need to travel every day, thus it reduces the overall carbon output indirectly. In the fact it also allows the decrease of paper usage, so that a plenty of trees could live on. With online tests instead of paper tests and online assessments instead of paper assessments, online courses are a more environmentally friendly education method. Fees much cheaper As last point said you dont need to travel every day, as a result you can save a large number of travelling expenses. Whats more compared with the high cost of tuition fees in school the cost in online courses are much lower. Take Brighton School of Business Management as an example let us look at the picture 1 we can find that most online courses fees are only around  £2000. It is much cheaper than the normal courses such as my MSc degree tuition fee about  £13700. It really can save a large number of money. Convenience and flexibility to learners Generally speaking, for the part-time or full-time job workers and some disabled people they are impossible to be reeducated. They cannot go to the class because time is not allowed. While after the appearance of online courses, the dream of those people comes true. In many contexts, online courses are self-paced and the learning sessions are available 24*7. Learners are not demand to attend classes in a specific day time. They can also pause learning sessions at their convenience. Research tool find information With the development of the internet, people get information more and more easily. In the past if somebody wants to read books or find some specifically information. They always need to borrow reference books from library or buy new books and magazines. Its a large spending and also not convenience you have to remember when you need to return them. However, those things would not happen if you use the internet sources. Nowadays people especially the student use the internet as a research tool very frequently. We can find all the information we want online from daily things to academic books. Google the most famous online search engine, it has more than 100 language and we can also use the advanced search for academic learning. Whats more, I think every university has a mass of online resource for the particular subject. For instance in the university of Sheffield we have a powerful network resources. Its known as the MUSE (picture 2). So wherever we are, we still can get almost all t he information about our subjects as long as we can access the internet. Delivery Tool What is online delivery? One of the most all-embracing definitions is made by Tony Bates. He said it is a Student-centered education approach, which contains a number of technologies, in order to make the activity and communication opportunities asynchronously and synchronously. This model is based on mass selection and appropriate technology in the campus, open Learning systems and distance education. This approach allows teachers determine the learning environment flexibly to meet the different needs of Students, and at the meantime provides high-quality and cost-effective Learning. (Bates, A. W. (1997), pp, 98 99) Benefits of online delivery In this part I will use the online delivery to compare with the traditional delivery, so that we can find the benefits clearly. Firstly, we can focus on all over the world such as choosing courses which is offered by other countries. Secondly, online delivery is available in everywhere at anytime instead of going to school at a specific time. Whats more we can all learn in interest, I think student can study a subject best when they are interested in it. Last but not least it also gives the disabled student and staffs. They get a good chance to be re-educated. Case study of online delivery Open University Open University is one of the oldest universities which offer online courses. After about 40-years development, its online course system is very perfect. Next I will take the Open University as an example to explain the online courses. How do you apply for entry According to the Official Website (http://www.open.ac.uk/new/apply-for-entry.shtml), For most courses, you dont need to apply for entry. You simply register for the course you want to take. How do you pay First of all, you have to choose the subject you want, you will find an overall situation about the subject such as the starting date, the ending date, fees, course offering and so on. Then you Register your course and pay it by card. Finally you will get your username and password. How do you learn Every time you sign in to the OU website you can access to the home page of your course. Now you can begin to study online. You can make a suitable studying schedule. After that you take the online classes, and discuss with teachers or classmates online, or hand on your homework online etc., it is very convenient. Communication medium with teachers or other students Communication is the most important and also the most basic human activity in our daily lives. You need to communicate with others from waking up in the morning to going to bed in the evening, unless you always stay at home and not use the telephone, while it is impossible. For students the communication between teachers and students is the premise of studying well. Before we have internet we could only touch with teacher at school. It was really restricted. If we had some problem after class, we only had to wait until the class began again on the next day. Students wasted a lot of time on waiting. However, on these days with the help of the internet our communication becomes more and more convenient. From now on the class is not only in the classroom, but also it extends to everywhere at anytime. E-mail is the most widely used communication medium among student teacher and other classmates. It doesnt matter when you havent finished your work on time in class or if you didnt understand a certain question. You can send them to your tutor by E-mail immediately when you finish them. For instance in Christinas class (my summer school academic writing teacher in University of Sheffield) we are always asked to write a short article in class and check by Christina one by one. While time is usually limited, so at that time the rest of us would be asked to send the articles to her by E-mail. It is very efficient and can save time. Of courses there are other methods to communicate such as online chat, Skype and MSN. They are all very useful. New plan brings to internet education At last I want to give you a new plan of my own opinion which I think will assist the development of the internet education. That is: using the online tutoring when the student graduated from the primary school instead of the middle school. Maybe some people think that this suggestion is absurd, but I believe that some day in the future it will come true. Now I am going to explain why I have such idea. There are several possible reasons. First of all, adapt to the internet education ahead of schedule. In real life, students usually use internet to help study when they came to college or university. That is good but it brings some drawbacks to them. They dont know how to use the internet correctly. A lot of students plagiarizing from internet result in lose their marks. And also some students dont how to research the information they want, so that they dont believe internet is a good learning method. The information on internet is not always healthy. There are some violent and pornographic information. For many people, this is the first time they contact with Internet so closely especially the student in developing countries; they cannot withstand the temptation and misleading information. Internet cannot have the desired effect. Senior high school and university study are both very important, it seems important that we need to cultivate a most efficient learning methods before this period, so secondary school is the best period of time. Whats more high school students have strong ability to accept new things and there are not many rebellious thoughts. So do you agree with me now? Conclusion As we can see from the report internet is playing an increasingly important role in our lives. Because internet is connivance, fast, secure and necessary, if you are always working and studying in primitive way, it will be more and more ineffective and uncompetitive. We need to learn and have a good use of the internet in our study; it really helps you a lot. As a person also a student who is living in the new age we have the responsibility to use and create new technologies. That is the requirement of social development. At last I enumerate several suggestions: It is a good idea to use internet in your study Never spend too much time on internet Learn to distinguish right from wrong Reference Bates, A. W. (1997) the impact of technological change on open and distance learning. (Online) Booker, D (2000)getting to grips with online delivery. Australia: NCVER Ltd Smith, S.C. (2002) from online learner to online teacher. (online) Phillips, B. (2003) overview of online teaching and internet resources for statistics education. Australia: Swinburne University of Technology David, M. (2001) an Online Course in Information Literacy. Open University of Hong Kong Wikipedia encyclopedia.11/08 E-Learning http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-Learning viewed 23/08/09 Timeshighereducation. 18/05/2001 Evolution not an e-revolution http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26storycode=166182 viewed 25/08/09 Wikipedia encyclopedia. 25/08/09 Online tutoring http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-line_tutoring viewed 28/08/09

Description of eclipse in The Eclipse by Virginia Woolf :: essays research papers

Description of eclipse in "The Eclipse" by "Virginia Woolf" Virginia Woolf, English novelist, essayist, and critic has beautifully portrayed the natural phenomenon of eclipse. She has also enlightened the importance of the sun. She has narrated the essay dramatically and has regarded sun as an actor that was going to come on the stage to perform as if a drama was going on. The sky served as a stage. She has made the scene vivid and ravishing by the usage of colors, images and similes. The way she has described it is so highly coloured and realistic that the readers visualize the eclipse to be occurring before their eyes. People were anxiously going towards a hilltop from where all would view the sun with reverence. People had gathered on the hilltop and stood in a straight line that it seemed they were statues standing on the edge of the world. As the sun rose, clouds glowed up. Light gleamed and peered over the rim of the clouds. The sun raced towards the point where eclipse had to take place. But the clouds were impeding it. The sun with a tremendous speed endeavoured to escape the mist. At some point it came forth then again was shrouded by the fleecy clouds. The sun then appeared hollow as the moon had come in front of it. A substantial proportion of the Sun was covered and the loss of daylight became noticeable. The writer has efficaciously described the sun’s efforts to break free from the cloudy hurdle. She has continuously personified sun as it was putting its best efforts to make its face appear before the world. The clouds were stifling the sun’s speed. The sanctified twenty-four seconds had begun but still the sun was entrapped and was striving to disencumber itself from the clump of clouds. â€Å"Of the twenty-four seconds only five remained, and still he was obscured.† The time of the eclipse was passing and it seemed that the sun was losing. It was continuously obliterated by the clouds. The colours of the valleys seemed to disappear. Everything was fading as ‘All the colour bega n to go from the moor.’ The colours were changing, â€Å"The blue turned to purple, the white became livid as at the approach of a violent but windless storm. Pink faces went green, and it became colder than ever.† The light and warmth were vanishing.

Language, Identity and Cultural Difference Essay

According to Hall (1997a), enunciation theories suggest that even though we may talk of ourselves from our experiences, the person who speaks and the subject being spoken of are never identical. Identity in this regard is to be conceived as a production which is never complete- â€Å"always in process, and always constituted within, not outside, representation†- (Hall, 1997a) as opposed to viewing it as a complete fact which is then represented by the new cultural practices. However, this view shakes the legitimacy and authority upon which the term cultural identity bases its claim. There are two ways in which cultural identity can be thought of. The first view sees it in terms of a single shared culture, some kind of a collective ‘one true self’ that is hiding inside many other more artificially imposed selves that people with a shared history and ancestry hold in common (Hall, 1997b). Within this view of description of cultural identity, our cultural identities mirrors those historical experiences that we hold in common and the shared cultural codes which offer us as a people, a stable, immutable and continuous frames of reference and meaning, under the shifting classes and fluctuations of our actual history (Hall, 1997a). Singapore was envisioned by her leaders as a multiethnic society in which the constituent ethnic groups shared participation in common institutions while at the same time retaining their distinct languages, customs and religions. The ethnic categories represented self-evident, natural groups that would continue their existence into the indefinite future. Singaporean identity therefore implies being an Indian, a Chinese, or a Malay but in relation to other groups. This model of ethnicity demands the denial of important internal variations for each ethnic group and the recognition of differences between the categories (Tsui & Tollefson, 2007). The second view of cultural identity recognizes that there are similarities and important differences which make up what we really are. We cannot persistently refer with exactness to one experience and one identity without recognizing the other dimension. This other dimension represents the rifts and discontinuities that comprise cultural uniqueness. In this second sense, cultural identity is viewed as an issue of both â€Å"becoming† and â€Å"being†, something that belongs to the future as much as it belongs to the past. Cultural identities in this regard have histories and therefore changes constantly. In other words, cultural identities are subject to the uninterrupted play of history, culture and power (Hall, 1997a). Identity is the name given to the different ways we are placed, and put ourselves within the tale of the past. This second conception of cultural identity is more disturbing and less familiar. How can the formation of identity be understood if does not proceed from a straight line or a fixed origin? The Singaporean identity can be thought of as composed of two vectors that operate simultaneously. These are the vectors of rift and difference, and similarity and continuity. The Singaporean identity can be seen with regard to the relationship between the two vectors.   Similarity and continuity brings to fore the realization that it is the experience of fundamental discontinuity that the Indians, Malays and Chinese share and among these are immigration, colonization and Asian origin. It is therefore interesting to look at how the concept of identity, language and cultural differences were created and how these concepts are related within the context of Singapore. The analysis herein presented will be based in Hall’s view of the link between language, identity and cultural difference. Relationship between Language, Identity and Cultural Difference The relationship between language, culture and identity has emerged to be a hotly contested topic in social sciences. The questions that mainly arise concern the apparent difference between cultural and ethnic identity. Are these types of identities similar or should they be differentiated conceptually. Various scholars hold varying views on the role of language in the definition of one’s identity. A major question that one may be compelled to ask is whether a culture or ethnic group can be considered to be unique if it does not have its own language or in the least its own rendition of a common tongue. Cultural identity is universal whether it is expressed with regard to humanity or otherwise since people from every part of the world are conscious of some kind of specificity that sets them apart from others. In contrast, ethnic identity only appear to take place within complex societies when it seems functional to separate individuals into categories founded upon something other than age, gender or occupation. Ethnicity is associated with cultural identity since one must make reference to cultural, linguistic or religious particularities in order to categorize individuals. According to Hall (1997b), culture is produced by representation. Culture concerns shared meaning and the medium through which we make sense out of things is through the use of language. It is through language that meaning is produced and exchanged. The only mechanism of sharing meaning is through a common access to language. In this regard, language is fundamental to meaning and culture and has always been conceived as the major bank of cultural values and meanings. However, one may be compelled to ask how meaning is constructed through language. According to Hall (1997b), language constructs meaning via its operation as a representational system. Language is one of the mechanisms through which ideas, thoughts and feelings are represented in culture. In this regard, representation through language is fundamental to the processes through which meaning is produced. Our sense of identity is derived from meaning and therefore meaning is linked with questions about how we use culture to define and maintain identity and difference within and between groups. In every social and personal relationship in which we participate, meaning is constantly being produced. Meaning is also produced through our expression in and consumption of relevant cultural materials. Our conducts and practices are also regulated and organized by meaning which help in the setting of rules, norms and conventions upon which social life is ordered and governed. The question of identity therefore emerges in relation to various other divergent moments or practices within the cultural circuits; in our construction of identity and the defining of difference, in the production and consumption and in the regulation of social conduct. In all these instances, language is one of the most important medium through which we produce and circulate meaning.

The Role of Assesment in Higher Education

Table of Content NoTitlePage No 1Introduction 2Role of assessment in curriculum design , learning & teaching 3Assessment for learning v Assessment of Learning 4. Issues and concerns ? Abstract Assessment is an integral part of curriculum practice. The prime consideration of educational institutions are the outcomes of learning, the enhanced abilities students can demonstrate because of their increase in knowledge , able to adapt and understand to changes because of their university experiences.Our concern is how learning takes effect and how teaching and assessment affect the quality of learning in order for students to acquire the knowledge and competencies that is required for the work place. To acquire these industry relevant skills lecturers suggest assessment be integral to teaching and how learning activities are structured. Hence , this report reviews the role of assessment in curriculum design & change, it’s importance of continuous assessment for enhancing learning, c ommon assessment practices and it issues and concerns. 1. Introduction: In this report, literature researched was with regards to the role of assessment in curriculum design & change. Thus this report tries to answer the following questions in order to highlight the role of assessment in curriculum design, implementation and enhancement of learning. 1. What is curriculum and the role of assessment in curriculum development and enhancement? 2. What is Assessment of learning v Assessment for Learning and the practices in higher education 3.Issues and concerns on assessment in teaching and learning at institutions of higher learning? 2. Assessment as a part of curriculum practice Curriculum is a Latin word and it refers to a ‘course’ or a ‘track’ to be followed. In education, the focus is learning, then the most appropriate interpretation for the word curriculum is viewed as a course or ‘plan for learning’ (ef. Taba , 1962). (Howell and Evans, 199 5) defines curriculum as the ‘what’ of teaching. I would define curriculum as a course of study.Then the process of curriculum development can be seen in short where one develops a product, which involves an ongoing improvement. Curriculum development is a long cyclic process of research, designing, implementing and evaluating learning outcomes based on the interest, needs and capabilities of learners, and the many stakeholders, which directs enhancement. The literature review report is in relation to the role of assessment in curriculum development and enhancement of Teaching and Learning. What is Assessment?Assessment is any process that evaluates an individual’s knowledge, understanding and skills. Van den Akker (2003) defines assessment as an integral component of curriculum practice. Assessment gives feedback on curriculum delivery which indicates about student learning, the curriculum and the academic policies. Thus educators strongly believe that assessmen t and curriculum be integrated in the curriculum cycle. For example, Students achievement of knowledge and skills are determined by assessment.Lecturers manage teaching and assessment of student competence according to the level of the course, giving grades, guiding and counselling and so on. These can only be possible if there are effective assessment procedures in the curriculum administration and practice. â€Å"In 1995 the Assessment Forum of the American Association of Higher Education led by Thomas A. Angelo went through an interactive process to develop a definition of assessment. The end-result of that definition process is as follows:† â€Å"Assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student learning.It involves making our expectations explicit and public; setting appropriate criteria and high standards for learning quality; systematically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to determine how well performance matches those expec tations and standards; and using the resulting information to document, explain, and improve performance. When it is embedded effectively within larger institutional systems, assessment can help us focus our collective attention, examine our assumptions, and create a shared academic culture dedicated to assuring and improving the quality of higher education (Thomas A.Angelo, AAHE Bulletin, November 1995, p. 7)† In order to measure a student’s learning outcome, progression and competence attained, various types of information need to be gathered to determine the degree of student’s attainment in the learning outcomes for the curriculum. Various methods of formal and informal observation of students during their learning, examinations and quizzes, performance on assignments, projects and presentations are used to gather this information. Lecturers advise that there should be a plan for assessment at programme, course and lesson level, which is often overlooked.As P ratt (1998) stated, to make sure student achievements and grades reflect the learning outcomes established, assessments must be carefully planned, conducted, subject to continuous analysis, evaluation and enhancement. Learning outcomes (knowledge and competence of students), assessment, and teaching are all parts of an integrated whole. Assessment is believed to be essential to the teaching process in delivery and experience of the curriculum. But some students think of assessment as a form of control for lecturers. As (Pratt, 1998; Haladyna & Downing, 2004) stated when students progress from one semester to another they become displeased and suspicious about the assessment practices, and regarding them to be unfair and a means to demonstrate favouritism and punishment. † In institutions of higher learning, educators have the choice to choose the assessment types and practices. Since assessment results affect academic competence, educators are required to create a conducive le arning environment and make assessment integral to educational processes.In an encouraging learning environment a healthy dialogue takes place, trying out ideas, reflection, discussion, ask questions and enjoy the process of learning. (Pratt, 1998) Assessment is an important component and has several purposes. It directs the teaching process. Monitoring, discussion and observations in the classroom is also an important kind of assessment. This allows the instructor to gauge how well the lesson is going and whether learning is taking place with healthy discussion, participation and answering sessions (Nittko, 2004).Assessment helps in identifying learning difficulties, students’ strength and weakness. This then allows the instructor to set questions that can help build on the student’s weaknesses both formally and informally. Secondly assessment provides feedback on the learning. Information from assessment helps in programme evaluation (Pratt, 1998). Thirdly assessment declares ones achievement for various stakeholders like students, parents, the institution, prospective employers, the government sectors, accreditation body, and professional bodies.Assessment in the form of quizzes, tests, class projects, assignments and informal observations declare how well a student has achieved the learning outcomes and grade in his/her course, module or unit (Nittko, 2004). Besides, assessment points students to pedagogical priorities and directs students approach to experience course curriculum. Classroom questions test and examinations would indicate to students, important topics of the curriculum. Example, if questions are based on trivial information, then students focus would be at factual recall and knowledge.If tests require substantive knowledge and deep understanding then students change their perspective to curriculum. Assessment motivations, improves self image and a sense of self power of students. When assessment is well designed, it produces su ccess in learning; it motivates and stimulates student confidence and wanting to learn. Meherus and Lehman (1991) describes assessment as an important tool as it increases motivation towards their course, which establishes healthy study habits, which also provides feedback to lecturers to determine students’ strengths and weaknesses.Assessment gives lecturers an opinion on students’ learning. Assessment results enable the lecturer to provide further guidance about their learning. Therefore, lecturers in institutes of higher learning should be aware of the significant role of assessment in curriculum and thus have the skills and tools to effectively setup curriculum at programme level. 3, Assessment for Learning v Assessment to Learning What is Assessment for Learning? It could be defined as: †¢a form of positive formal feedback [ e. g. ecturers comment; self-assessment systems] †¢provides informal feedback [ e. g. dialogue teaching; peer interaction] †¢i t gives an opportunity to the student to try and apply knowledge, skills and their understanding †¢ assessment tasks that are relevant †¢it guides students to develop independence and †¢it has an appropriate balance between summative and formative assessment. There should be a balance between formative and summative assessments. Continuous assessment or assessment for learning is practiced less compared to summative assessment.As stated by Careless (2004), lecturers in institutions of higher learning tend to choose more for theoretical knowledge than for practical and procedural knowledge in assessing students. Such assessment focuses on theory and concepts really do not help students for the real world. This limits the students of skills that employers look for. Brown & Glaser (1999) states improving on assessment practice improves student learning. Further to that, standards of learning rose through ongoing assessment practice. It is noted that students’ beha viour and attitude towards learning changes, when assessment methods change.Students become more responsible and take ownership of their learning. But there are challenging problems with assessment for learning. Problems identified by Black and William (2004) with regards to assessment for learning in institutions of higher learning as: †¢Assessment methods used by lecturers are not effective to promote good learning †¢Grading practices gives rise to competition rather than self improvement and †¢Feedback on assessment if practiced, often has a negative impact on less performing students which makes them believe that they lack ability and thus are not able to learn.Diamond (1998) further goes to describe the basic problem with assessment practice in institutions of higher learning, as a mismatch between learning outcomes and the assessment methods and criteria used by lecturers to assess and grade their students. Frequently, learning outcomes are expected to demonstra te critical thinking and problem solving skills, but the assessment type used would most frequently focus on recalling and recognition of content learned. Assessment used for the purpose of promoting student learning is described as assessment for learning.Assessment used for accountability purpose, grading or certification is assessment of learning. Assessments that promote enhancement to learning is one where there is a continuous process of back and forth between the student and the lecturer which provides feedback on progression until the outcome is well met. This sort of assessment is called ‘assessment for learning’ when assessment evidence is used to adjust teaching to meet learners needs and difficulties (Black & William 1998). Assessment is part and parcel of learning. Assessment in fact, shapes learning.Much has been discussed and written that to enhance student learning, assessment has to be integrated with teaching (Wright, et. al, 1997). Gibbs and Simpson ( 2005) regards assessment for learning as a system which directs and controls student learning based on the power of summative assessment and grades in addition to providing feedback. Assessment and teaching has to be blended to contribute to the goal of improving learning. Good instructors do pay careful attention to assessment and teaching, and to have learning activities well structured.Despite this suggestion, lecturers in higher education do not practice the real importance of assessment. As Black & William (1998) says this could also be because lecturers are not well trained in this area. In most institutions of higher learning assessment is used to test knowledge and does not test the critical and problem solving skills. Example, multiple choice questions promote de-contextualised, rot learning and this narrows the curriculum to basic skills with low cognitive demands. In contrast to this, the industries demand for transferable skills like communication, information retrieval, critical thinking, problem solving.And because of this, institutions have fast inclined to formative, holistic form of assessment which is described as ‘authentic’ assessments. However, as Black & William (1998) argues that traditional form of assessment cannot be easily replaced because they are embedded in complex histories, culture and power relations of school societies. Shepard (2001) also suggested that conventional assessment method based on theories and psychometric principles conflicts with implications of assessment for learning which is based on cognitive and constructive learning standards.James (2003) findings indicate a number of major effects with assessment methods and students self-perception and confidence level. For many students, they were disappointed with feedback, on how to improve their level of competence, for others was the concern on how to achieve higher marks. Term exams were rarely discussed or available so that students could use them to improve their knowledge and skills. Assessment plays a significant role in implementing curriculum. There should be significant guiding principles for this to happen. James (2003) had put forth the following guiding principles for assessment for learning: †¢Ensure ssessment methods used promote and reward desired learning activities and outcomes. †¢Students have got clear instructions on assessment requirements. †¢Provide effective and timely feedback with comments on a continuous basis. The first principle is based on Bloom’s taxonomy, which is to recall and recognition, comprehension and application, critical thinking and problem solving. In his second principle (James: 65) states the following: â€Å"Assessment procedures in higher education are likely to become increasingly open to security to candidates, and to candidates appeals.The need for commonly agreed marking procedures and techniques is obvious, if collective responsibility for candidates is maint ained, full openness between colleagues and demonstrable internal consistency of courses and related assessment procedures are vital importance† There can be a problem in generalised good assessment practices for learning. Different subject discipline like Engineering versus psychology would have different pedagogic assumptions. So if general principles cover all subjects, the way in which they manifest may differ for different subjects (Black & William, 2004).Boud (1990) suggests alternate developments in student assessments in higher education, which is careful monitoring of assessment to see how relevant they are to the students. He also challenges that current assessment methods do not really prepare students to the real world. Meherns & Lehman, 1991 & Nitko 2004, state quality teaching and assessment are intertwined. They greatly improve students’ learning. Teaching will be effective when teaching activities, learning outcomes and assessment methods are well aligne d.As Nitko (2004) suggests 4 key questions lecturers got to ask themselves when preparing for teaching and to implement continuous assessment. †¢Is my lesson going well? Is there progression in student leaning? To align to these questions suggested assessment methods could be classroom observation during class activities, response to questions and students’ interactions. †¢How can I improve to make the learning activity better? Diagnosis types of errors made by students, identify students who are not participating and also at the assessment methods used. †¢What feedback to be given about the student’s learning?Assessment methods used are informal observation and encouragement, how well they have achieved the learning outcome, assignments, quiz and consultations. †¢Finally are the students ready to progress to the next level? Informal observation, checking and questioning students about their understanding of homework, test, quiz and grades obtained to decide on their progress to their next learning or do they require remedial instructions. Lecturers should use a variety of assessment methods to help student achieve the learning outcomes as stipulated in the course curriculum. In most cases lecturers generally use pen-and-paper achievement tests.Meherns & Lehman (1991) argue that classroom evaluation should not be restricted to pen-and-paper but other forms like observation techniques, checklists etc. Continuous assessment is practical for everyday classroom use. Test, presentations, projects, journal, collaborative works are some that could be used to assess students and lecturers their stand in relation to knowledge and skills. Smith (2003) and Shepard (2001) stated that assessment trends are moving away from traditional methods to a variety of new approaches. For instance, Observation is greatly used by experienced teachers to identify students’ progression or having difficulties.Portfolio or records of work are also another form of assessment practice. Portfolio is a kind of file where student’s written works are kept. Portfolios provide cumulative evidence of learning over time in much detail and substance than a mere list of scores. Self and peer assessment are also essential to learning. Students’ self-reflection and their understanding are used to inform for further teaching and areas the lecturer needs to spend more time and effort. Brookhart (2001), Shepard (2001), and Stiggins (1999, 2001) maintained that students should be actively involved in self-evaluation as a form of assessment.Their argument was that students need to monitor their own progress by applying ongoing feedback that is helpful in showing them how to meet the ultimate learning outcome. However, self-assessment is only possible when lecturers help students develop assessment skills, because it is difficult for students to think of their work in terms of learning outcomes (Black & William, 2004). Peer-assessm ent is also another important form of assessment. The learning task is placed in the hands of the students. While the lecturer is able to observe and reflect on what is happening and frame helpful interventions.The lecturer finds this form very helpful indeed. Misconceptions are highlighted and these are discussed when they go over the assessment. These forms of assessment require student active learning. As one student stated ‘after a student marking my assignment, I can now acknowledge my mistakes easier. I hope that it is not just me who learned from the work but the student who marked it also’ (Black & William, 2004:16). Feedback and comments to students about their learning is a good practice in assessment. Feedback should state ways for improvement.Grades or marks are not providing enough feedback to help improve student learning (Nitko, 2004). Feedback is effective when it provokes thinking in students. With regards to this, Back & William (2004) stated marks are likely to set comparison; while only feedback and comments help them to improve. Research studies on feedback showed 60% improvement on performance. Feedback with no comments was more of judgement or grade with no indication for improvement (Black & William, 2004) Hence it is important for the enhancement of student learning that lecturers emphasise on feedback and comment on assessed work of students in the learning process. . Issues and Concerns Staff One of the main concerns in assessment will be the lecturers. Especially here in Malaysia in the private sector , many lecturers lack the knowledge in assessment practices. Universities and college do not believe in investing in training. Another factor is lecturers have heavy teaching work load and large class sizes that formal assessment would be replace by mere test, assignment and examinations due to time constrains. Cost Costs to the faculty and institution are an important factor. Some form of assessment processes can be time consuming, involving student supervision in observation of activities.Time, of course, is money. Also investing in additional resources like technology increases cost. This does not enable the lecturers to use innovative methods of assessment. Standards To increase pass rates standards are compromised. Assessment requirements have placed more weightage on coursework, so student achievement has appeared to improve the assumption coursework is easier then exams. In some cases institutions do not have a quality system in place. Validity and reliability of assessment could be questionable. ConclusionAssessment is a vital component of curriculum practice that has important contribution for effective practice and operations of curriculum. Lecturers’ acknowledgement for continuous assessment practice has significance for students learning of knowledge and skill. Lecturers should set assessment tasks that are practically challenging, provide feedback as they assess and get students e ngaged in the assessment process. Finally lecturers should change their views and practices of assessment and be committed to prepare competent graduates with the knowledge and skill in their specific field of study for the market place. References Akker, Van Den. (2003). Curriculum landscapes and Trends (pp1-10). Curriculum Perspectives:An Introduction. Black,P and William. (1998). Assessment and Classroom learning. Assessment in Education 5(1) Black,P. ,and William,D. (2004). Inside the Black Box: Phi-Delta kappan, 86(1):9-21 Diamond, R. M. (1998). Designing and Assessing Courses and Curricula: A practical Guide. Sanfrancisco: Jossey-Bass Inc Boud, D. (1990). Assessment and the Promotion of Academic Values. Studies in Higher Education 15(5): 101-111 Gibbs, G. & Simpson, C. 2004-5) Conditions under which assessment supports students' learning. 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